Language changes over time. In English, spelling, vocabulary, and pronunciation have gone through major changes over the centuries. In fact, modern speakers consider the English of 1,000 years ago as a foreign language.

The history of English began around 1,500 years ago. European groups invaded England, bringing their languages with them. These languages gradually developed into Old English. In 1066, the country was again invaded by the Normans from France, causing the language to go through a shift, leading to what we now call Middle English. Over the next 500 years, the English language underwent more shifts, eventually evolving into Modern English.

Pronunciation is one of the most distinct areas of change in the language. For example, people used to say “hus” and “mus” in Old English, but these words are now pronounced “house” and “mouse.” Additionally, there are variations of English pronunciation in the US, the UK, Australia, and elsewhere. When people who speak the same language live in different places, it undergoes a rapid change in each location.

“Truth” is possibly the greatest barrier to good communication. When in an argument, you have this powerful conviction that you are correct and do not try to see the other person’s point of view: instead, you are forcing him or her to agree with you. The more you try to persuade people to agree with you, the more they become argumentative. They believe that you are not listening to their viewpoints, so they argue longer to get you to listen. In the end, both parties end up upset and frustrated.

You may be completely unaware that you are doing this. A woman’s husband once said, “Sarah, you always do exactly what you want without considering my needs.” Sarah denied and explained that she had to prioritize her studies to prepare for big exams. Sarah may think she is being honest and reasonable, but she made the mistake of arguing that she is correct and her husband is wrong by denying his statement. She was not trying to understand his point of view and focused only on her needs. This was what exactly her husband was complaining about.

Paper ships, planes, or cranes come to mind when we hear the word “origami.” Few people, however, associate it with space science, yet origami has been gaining international attention in that field.

It was made possible by Dr. Miura Koryo’s invention in the 1970s. While studying the structural strength of rockets, he tried to find a way to make the objects strong but light. Finally, he came up with a special folding pattern that makes folding and unfolding stable. This pattern became known as “Miura-Ori.”

Dr. Miura applied the folding pattern to the solar panels for the Space Flyer Unit (SFU) that are used for unmanned experiments in space. The solar panels needed as much surface area as possible to maximize the energy they got from the sun. At the same time, they must be packed down to the smallest size possible to fit in the SFU. Additionally, the panels could be reused. All were made possible by Miura-Ori.

In 1995, the SFU was launched on the H-II rocket. The experiment was a success, and the solar panels were folded back into the SFU. The Space Shuttle Endeavor retrieved and brought the SFU back to the Earth. It is on display at the National Museum of Nature and Science in Ueno, Tokyo.

People do not only get water by drinking eight glasses of it each day. We also drink fruit juices, sodas, or milk, even coffee, and tea. All contain water, but some contain caffeine, which causes our bodies to get rid of water.

The Institute of Medicine, however, assures that this does not mean we lose too much water. Physically active people drink more water. This is the same case for those who live in hot climates. Depending on heat and activity, people may drink twice as much as others.

Still, this does not answer why people believe we are required to drink eight glasses of water daily. It may have started with a misunderstanding. In 1945, the American National Academy of Science published in its Food and Nutrition Board that it was ideal for adults to drink 2.5 liters of water a day. This study was based on an average of one millimeter for each kilocalorie of food eaten. Additionally, it was also stated that most of the amount of water we consume is contained in prepared foods.

The leading theory of why we need sleep is that the brain demands it. The reason is derived from common sense: our heads feel clearer after a good sleep. However, the benefits of sleeping for our brains must be confirmed with data, and the answer may depend on what type of sleep it is.

Harvard researchers led by Robert Stickgold tested undergraduates through aptitude tests. The researchers allowed the students to take naps before testing them again. Results showed that those who engaged in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep performed better in pattern recognition tests, whereas those who slept deeply excelled at memorization. Other researchers discovered that a sleeping brain tried to commit long-term memory of what happened while the person was asleep. With this discovery, memory consolidation may be one function of sleep.

In sleep researcher Giulio Tononi’s study, it showed that our sleeping brains seem to eliminate redundant or unnecessary connections. So the purpose of sleep is to perhaps remember and retain important information or memories by removing those that are not.

Japanese people win Igs almost yearly. In 2004, Inoue Daisuke won the Peace Prize for his invention of karaoke. He was awarded “for providing quite a new way for people to learn to put up with each other.” Inoue could not speak English much, so he sang “I’d Like to Teach the World to Sing” in a loud voice instead. He got a standing ovation.

In 2013, two groups of Japanese researchers won Ig Nobels as well. Niimi Masanori’s group was awarded the Medicine Prize. In their study, mice with heart transplants lived twenty days longer than the average of seven days after listening to Verdi’s “La Traviata.” The other group won the Chemistry Prize for discovering the special enzyme that makes us cry when cutting onions.

The Igs received criticisms as well because some people think it is making fun of real science. In 1995, Sir Robert May requested the organizers to stop giving Igs to British scientists. However, British scientists still accept the prizes. In fact, many scientists loved the idea of the Ig Nobel Prizes since the ceremony shows that science can be fun.

The Igs continue to make us laugh and think about the vast possibilities of the world. It is successful in carrying out its mission.

How much water are we supposed to consume in a day? It is a belief that we need eight glasses or about two liters of water a day. However, a recent report offers some different advice. Experts say that people should obey their bodies; drink as much water as they feel like drinking in a day.

According to the report from the Institute of Medicine, most healthy people let their thirst be their guide. The report also contains general suggestions. Women should drink about 2.7 liters a day, whereas men should consume around 3.7 liters. The study does not indicate the number of glasses needed a day. In fact, experts believe that it may be impossible to know the exact number of glasses of water needed to meet the study’s guidelines. This is because the daily water requirement may also include the water content in the food we eat.

We do not know why we cannot sleep sometimes. It is because we do not fully understand why it is needed in the first place. No matter how much we try to resist it, we fall asleep eventually.

After seven to nine hours of sleep, we get up. Then, we get tired once again after 15 to 17 hours. We divide our slumber between periods of deep-wave sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. REM sleep is a period when our brain is as active as when we are awake, but our voluntary muscles become paralyzed.

Animals have the same sleep behavior as well. Dolphins sleep with half of their brains awake in order to be aware of their surroundings underwater. When mallard ducks sleep in line, the ones at the start and end of the queue keep half of their brains awake and one of their eyes open to guard against predators.

This, however, comes at a price. Animals must lie still when asleep, making them easy prey. Sleep researcher Allan Rechtschaffen said, “If sleep doesn’t serve an absolutely vital function, it is the greatest mistake evolution ever made.”

Ig Nobel Prizes are the American parody of the Nobel Prizes, created in 1991 by Marc Abrahams. “We honor achievements that first make people laugh and then make them think,” he says. When Marc became the editor of a science magazine, he met people who did unique studies. However, nobody seemed to recognize or acknowledge them. This is how he came up with the Ig Nobels.

The name “Ig Nobel” is a play on words. “Ig” is short for “ignoble,” which means “dishonorable.” Every year, ten prizes are given in different categories such as literature, physics, and chemistry. The ceremony, held at Sanders Theater at Harvard University, is filled with humorous events. It begins with the paper airplane throwing that lasts for 30 seconds.

Winners of the Ig Nobels have 60 seconds to explain their studies. An eight-year-old girl called Miss “Sweetie Poo” acts as the timekeeper. If a winner exceeds 60 seconds, she will cry out “Please stop! I’m bored!” until the speaker stops. The ceremony ends with Marc’s closing remark: “If you didn’t win a prize—and especially if you did—better luck next year!”